1.Speaker could continue creating sentences by adding another adjective, prepostional phrase, or relative clause.
2.All languages have mechanisms(機制) of this sort that make the number of sentences limitless(無限).
3.The sentences of a language cannot be stored in a dictionary format in our heads.
Syntax= the part of grammar that represents a speaker's knowledge of sentences and their structures.
句法學=語法的一部分表示者說話者對於句子和他們對結構的知識。
「What do syntax rules do」
重點：
1.Word order(文字順序)
EX. I love you
法文的寫法卻是 I you love
2.Grammatical relationship(語法間關係)
He is a handsome boy.
He=主詞 is=動詞
3. Structural ambiguity (結構歧義=一個字可模擬兩可)
如:Unlockable(有兩個意思)
課文整理:
What do syntax rules do:
The rules of syntax combine words into phrases and phrases into sentences.
句法學的規則包含了字到片語和片語到句子的組合。
Among other things, the rules determine the correct word order for a language.除其他事項外，該規則決定了語言的正確語序。
For example, English is a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) language.
例如：英文是屬主詞、動詞、受詞組成的語言。
The English sentence in
(1)Grammatical =the words occur in the right order.
(2)Ungrammatical=the word order is incorrect for English.
總統提名新的最高法院法官。
1.The president nominated a new Supreme Court justice.(O)
2. President the Supreme new justice Court a nominated.(X)
Syntax第二個重要的角色是用來敘述特定字組的含意和這些字組順序之間的關係
Relationship between the meaning of a particular group of words and the arrangement of those word.一個句子的排序方式會影響最重要的關鍵意思。
1.What is syntactic categories(甚麼是句法範疇)
A sentence none of expressions that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.
一個句子裡的所表達的名詞可以使用其他的名詞來代替，而且沒有喪失語法的正確性。
A police officer found a puppy
=>police officer =noun phrase(NP)
One of several syntactic categories in English and all languages.
在英語和所有語系的語言都有屬於這種句法的類別。
NPs several syntactic or as objects in sentences.
許多的名詞片語句法或作為句子的對象
2. What does include
An NP often contains a determiner (like a or the)and a noun, but it may also consist(包含) of a proper name,
a pronoun, a noun without a determiner, or even a clause or a sentence.
名詞片語通常是確定的，像是A或THE和一個名詞，但也可能是一個專有名詞、代名詞，或是不確定的名詞，或關係子句或一個句子。
Even though a proper noun like John and pronouns such as he and him are single words, they are technically NPs, because they pattern like Nps in being able to fill a subject or object or other NP slots.
即使一個專有名詞像約翰和代名詞，如他和他是單數詞，他們在名詞片語技術上，因為像名詞片語他們的模式在能夠填補的主詞或對象或其他的名詞片語。
John found the puppy=>He found the puppy.
Nps can be more complex,as illustrated by the sentence:
名詞片語當然也可以更複雜，像是說明下面的句子：
The gril that professor Snape loved married the man of her dreams.
The NP subject of this sentence is the girl that professor Snape loved, and the NP object is the man of her dreams.
這句話的NP主詞是the girl that professor Snape loved，而名詞片語為the man of her dreams
Syntactic categories are part of a speaker's knowledge of syntax.
句法範疇是語法的說話者的知識的一部分。
That is, speakers of English know that only items (a), (b), (e), (f) and (g) in the following list are NPs even of they have never heard the term noun phrase before.
1.
(a) a bird
(b)the red banjo
(c)have a nice day
(d)with a balloon
(e) the woman who was laughing
(f)it
(g)John
(h)went
You can test this claim by inserting each expression into three contexts:
What/who I heard was ________,who found___________? and___________
was seen by everyone.
For example, " Who found with a balloon?
is ungrammatical, as is *Went was seen by everyone, as opposed to Who found it? or John was seen by everyone.
Only NPs fit into these contexts because only NPs can function as subjects and objects.
There are other syntactic categories.
The expression found a puppy is a verb phrase(VP).
A verb phrase always contains a verb(V), and it may cantain other categories, such as a noun phrase or prepositional phrase(PP), which is a preposition followed by an NP, such as in the park, on the roof, with a balloon.
In(2) the VPs are those phrases that can complete the sentence " The child___________."
2.
(a) saw a clown
(b) a bird
(c) slept
(d) smart
(e) ate the cake
(f) found the cake in the cupboard
(g)realized that the Earth was round
Inserting(a),(c),(e),(f), and(g) will produce grammatical sentences,whereas the insertion of (b) or (d) would result in an ungrammatical sentence.
Thus (a),(c),(e),(f) and (g) are verb phrases.
3.Lexical Categories(詞彙分類)
Lexical and Functional categories
詞彙和功能分類
Syntactic categories include both phrasal categories such as NP,VP,AP(adjective phrase), PP(prepositional phrase), and AdvP(adverbial phrase),as well as lexical categories such as noun(N),verb(V),preposition(P), adjective(A) and adverb(Adv).
句法範圍包含早兩種，一種為短語類別，如NP，VP，AP（形容詞短語），PP（介詞短語），和AdvP（副詞短語），以及第二種為詞彙的類別，如名詞（N），動詞（V），介詞（P），形容詞（A）和副詞（Adv）。
Each lexical category has a corresponding phrasal category, Following is a list of phrasal categories and lexical categories with some examples of each type:
每個詞彙類都有一個對應的短語類別，以下是短語的類別和詞彙的類別一些示例的列表：
《Phrasal categories-短語類型》
Noun Phrase(NP)名詞短語
men, the man, the man with a telescope
Verb Phrase(VP) 動詞短語
sees, always sees, rarely sees the man , often sees, the man with a telescope
Adjective Phrase(AP) 形容詞短語
happy, very happy, very happy about winning
Prepositional Phrase(PP)前置詞短語
over nearly over,nearly over the hill
Adverbial Phrase (AdvP)副詞短語
brightly, more brightly, more brightly than the Sun
「Lexical categories詞類」
Noun(N)
puppy, boy, man,soup, happiness,fork, kiss, pillow
Verb(V)
find, run, sleep, throw, realize, see ,try, want, believe
Preposition(P)
up, down, across, into, from, by, with, over
Adjective(A)
red, big, happy, candid, hopeless, fair, idiotic, lucky
Adverb(Adv)
again, always, brightly, often ,never,very,fairly
Many of these categories may already be familiar to you. As mentioned earlier,
some of them are traditionally referred to as parts of speech.
許多這些類別可能是你已經熟悉的。如前面提到的，它們在傳統上被稱為言語的一部分。
Other categories may be less familiar, for example,the category determiner(Det),
其他類別可能是較不熟悉的，例如，肯定句類別（Det），
which includes the articles a and the, as well as demonstratives such as this, that, these, and those, and" quantifiers" such as each and every.
它包括一個物品和，以及指示代詞如此，即，這些和那些，和“量詞”，如每一個。
它包括文章中的A 和 The，以及指示代詞像是 This that, these, and those, and" 量詞"
Another less familiar category is T(ense), which includes the modal auxiliaries may, might, can ,could, must, shall,should, will, and would, and acstract tense morphemes that we discuss below.
另一個不太熟悉的類別為時態，其中包括情態助動詞
may, might, can ,could, must, shall,should, will, and would,和抽象時態字元
下面來進行討論。
T and Det are functional categories so called because their members have grammatical functions rather than descriptive meanings.
For example,determiners specify whether a noun is indefinite or definite( a boy versus the boy), or the proximity of the person or object to the context ( this boy versus that boy).
Tense provides the verb with a time frame, whether present( John knows Mary), or past( John danced).
In English,T is expressed as a (sometimes silent) morpheme on the verb, except in the future tense, which is expressed with themodal will.
Modals also express notions such as possibility(John may dance); necessity ( John must dance);ability( John can dance); and so on.
The modals belong to a larger class of verbal elements traditionally referred to as auxiliaries or helping verbs, which also include have abd be in sentences such as John is dancing or John has danced.
Each lexical category typically has a particular kind of meaning associated with it.
For example, verbs usually refer to actions, events, and states (kick, marry, love); adjectives to qualities or properties( lucky, old);
common noun general entites(dog,elephant, house); and proper nouns to particular individuals(Noam Chomsky) or places(Dodger Stadium) or other things that people give names to, such as commercial products (Coca-Cola, Viagra),
But the relationship between grammatical categories and meaning is more complex than these few examples suggest.
For example, some nouns refer to events
(marriage and destruction) and others to states
(happiness, loneliness).
We can use abstract nouns such as honor and beauty, rather than adjectives, to refer to properties and qualities.
In the sentence "Seeing is believing," seeing and believing are nouns but are not entities.
Prepositions are usually used to express relationships between two entities involving a location( e.g., the boy is in the room, the cat is under the bed), but this is not always the case; the prepositions of ,by, about, and with often have other than locational meanings.
Because of the difficulties involved in specifying the precise meaning of lexical categories we do not usually define categories in terms of their meanings, but rather on the basis of where they occur in a sentence, what categories co-occur with them, and what their morphological characteristics are.
For example, we define a noun as a word that can occur with a determiner (the boy) and that can (ordinarily) take a plural marker( boys); a verb as a word that can occur with an adverb (run fast) or modal(may go, will dance); an adjective as a word that can occur with a degree word(very hungry) or a morphological marker (hungrier), among other properties.
All languages have syntactic categories such as N,V and NP.
Speakers know the syntactic categories of their language even if they do not know the technical terms.
Our knowledge of syntactic classes is revealed when we substitute equivalent phrases, as we just did in examples (1) and (2), and when we use the various syntactic tests that we have discussed.
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